By Nathan Abbington
Recently, China has announced the discovery of vast thorium reserves, a radioactive metal being hailed as a potential "limitless" energy source capable of powering the nation for an astonishing 60,000 years. The findings, detailed in a recently declassified geological survey concluded in 2020 and published in the Chinese journal Geological Review, suggest that the country's thorium deposits far exceed previous estimates, positioning China at the forefront of a nuclear energy revolution. Geologists in Beijing, along with state-backed researchers, have spotlighted the Bayan Obo mining complex in Inner Mongolia as a key site, estimating it alone could yield 1 million tonnes of thorium—enough, some scientists claim, to meet China’s household energy demands "almost forever." This discovery comes at a pivotal moment as the world grapples with the urgent need to transition from fossil fuels to sustainable energy alternatives, but it also raises complex questions about feasibility, environmental impact, and global energy politics.
Thorium, a silvery, slightly radioactive element named after the Norse god Thor, has long been recognized as a promising alternative to uranium, the dominant fuel in traditional nuclear reactors. Unlike uranium, thorium is more abundant in the Earth’s crust—three to four times more so, according to the World Nuclear Association—and can generate up to 200 times more energy per unit than its counterpart. What further sets thorium apart is its use in thorium molten-salt reactors (TMSRs), an innovative nuclear technology that China is aggressively pursuing. Unlike conventional uranium-based systems, these reactors operate at lower pressures, reducing the risk of catastrophic meltdowns and producing significantly less long-lived radioactive waste. Speaking anonymously to the South China Morning Post, a Beijing-based geologist captured the excitement surrounding the find: “For over a century, nations have been engaging in wars over fossil fuels. It turns out the endless energy source lies right under our feet.” This sentiment underscores the potential of thorium to democratize energy production, but the reality of harnessing it is far more nuanced.
The Bayan Obo mining complex, already a global hub for rare earth elements, emerged as the crown jewel of China’s thorium discovery. The survey, led by senior engineer Fan Honghai of the National Key Laboratory of Uranium Resource Exploration-Mining and Nuclear Remote Sensing in Beijing, identified 233 thorium-rich zones across the country, stretching from Xinjiang in the west to Guangdong on the coast. Remarkably, the study found that just five years’ worth of mining waste from an iron ore site in Inner Mongolia contains enough thorium to power U.S. households for over 1,000 years. “These thorium resources in tailings remain totally untouched,” Fan noted, highlighting an untapped resource that could, if fully exploited, shift the global reliance on fossil fuels. China’s prior estimates pegged its thorium reserves as sufficient for 20,000 years, but the new findings suggest a scale orders of magnitude greater, though exact totals remain classified due to national security concerns.
China’s ambitions extend beyond mere resource discovery. The country is already working on thorium-based nuclear technology, having approved the construction of the world’s first thorium molten-salt reactor in the Gobi Desert in 2021. This experimental 2-megawatt reactor has been operational since then, and a larger 10-megawatt demonstration project, managed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, is slated to begin construction in 2025, with operations expected by 2030. Beyond terrestrial applications, China has unveiled designs for the KUN-24AP, the world’s first thorium-powered nuclear container ship, and is exploring thorium reactors for lunar bases. These advancements signal a strategic vision to leverage thorium not just for domestic energy independence but also for maritime and space exploration, potentially giving China a significant edge in the global race for clean energy innovation.
Yet, for all its promise, thorium is not without challenges. Extracting the metal economically remains a formidable hurdle. While thorium is abundant, separating it from rare earth ores or mining waste requires substantial amounts of acid and energy, generating large volumes of wastewater that could pose environmental risks. Critics point to the rare earth mining industry’s troubled history in Bayan Obo, where atmospheric pollution and radioactive contamination have raised health concerns for nearby residents. On social media platforms like X, users have voiced skepticism: “#ThoriumEnergy sounds great, but can China really do this without harming the planet?” one post questioned. Moreover, thorium is not fissile on its own—it must be bombarded with neutrons to transmute into uranium-233, a fissile material capable of sustaining a nuclear reaction. This process demands sophisticated reactor designs and significant research investment, areas where China currently leads but others lag.
The environmental benefits of thorium-based energy are compelling. TMSRs produce minimal long-lived waste compared to uranium reactors, with radioactive byproducts becoming safe within hundreds of years rather than thousands. They also eliminate the need for water cooling, making them viable in arid regions like the Gobi Desert. If scaled successfully, thorium could help China reduce its heavy reliance on coal, which still accounts for over 55% of its energy mix, slashing carbon emissions and bolstering its climate commitments. Globally, widespread adoption could diminish the geopolitical tensions tied to fossil fuel dependence, a point emphasized by the anonymous Beijing geologist who envisioned “cargo ships powered by container-sized reactors crossing oceans for years without refueling.”
However, thorium’s potential is tempered by ethical and security concerns. While thorium itself is not suitable for nuclear weapons, its byproducts, like uranium-233, could theoretically be weaponized, though experts argue this is impractical compared to existing methods. Western nations, particularly the United States, which pioneered molten-salt reactor research in the 1960s at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, have expressed unease about falling behind. The U.S. and countries like India, Japan, and the U.K. have explored thorium in the past, but China’s rapid progress—evidenced by its compressed timelines, such as completing the Gobi reactor in three years instead of six—has spurred calls for renewed investment. “China’s advances place it ahead in the race for sustainable nuclear energy,” noted Dr. Li Xun, a Beijing-based energy researcher. “This discovery could alter the global balance of power in the energy landscape.”
The international implications are profound. Turkey, with the world’s second-largest thorium reserves at 790,000 tonnes, and India, another thorium-rich nation, could follow China’s lead, potentially reshaping energy markets. Yet, the transition to thorium-based power requires more than resources—it demands an infrastructure overhaul, as existing nuclear plants are designed for uranium. Scaling TMSRs for commercial use will take years, if not decades, of engineering breakthroughs and political will. For now, China’s discovery remains a tantalizing prospect rather than an immediate solution, with extraction costs and environmental trade-offs still under scrutiny. The Bayan Obo deposits stand as a symbol of possibility—a radioactive treasure trove beneath the earth, waiting to be unlocked.
NOTE: India is the first to explore thorium as a nuclear energy source. The KAMINI (Kalpakkam Mini Reactor), located at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) in Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, became operational in 1996 and is the only reactor in the world using uranium-233 derived from thorium-232. This water-cooled, low-power (30 kW) research reactor is primarily used for neutron radiography, materials testing, and scientific research, not power generation. While it seems India remains committed to developing thorium-based nuclear energy, it has not yet built a working thorium molten-salt reactor (TMSR).
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